The Indus Valley Civilisation IVC was a Bronze Age civilisation BCE; mature period BCE mainly in the northwestern regions of South Asiaextending from what today is northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India. The Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, and clusters of large non-residential buildings. This was the first of its sites to be excavated in the s, in what was then the Punjab province of British Indiaand is now Pakistan. The Harappan civilisation is sometimes called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from these cultures. Among the settlements were the major urban centres of HarappaMohenjo-daro UNESCO World Heritage SiteGaneriwala in modern-day Pakistan ; and Dholavira and Rakhigarhi in present-day India. A relationship with the Dravidian or Elamo-Dravidian language family is favoured by a section of scholars. John wrote: "I was much exercised in my mind how we were to get ballast for the line of the railway". They were told of an ancient ruined city near the lines, called Brahminabad. Visiting the city, he found it full of hard well-burnt bricks, and, "convinced that there was a grand quarry for the ballast I wanted", the city of Brahminabad was reduced to ballast. These bricks now provided ballast along 93 miles km of the railroad track running from Karachi to Lahore". Fleet, prompting an excavation campaign under Sir John Hubert Marshall in 22 and resulting in the discovery of the civilisation at Harappa by Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni and Madho Sarup Vatsand at Mohenjo-daro by Rakhal Das BanerjeeE. Bymuch of Mohenjo-Daro had been excavated, but excavations continued, such as that led by Sir Mortimer Wheelerdirector of the Archaeological Survey of India in Among other archaeologists who worked on IVC sites before the independence in were Ahmad Hasan DaniBrij Basi LalNani Gopal Majumdar, and Sir Marc Aurel Stein. The Indus Valley Civilisation site was hit by almost 10 feet of water as the Sutlej Yamuna link canal trading. With the inclusion of the predecessor and successor cultures Early Harappan and Late Harappan, respectively the entire Indus Valley Civilisation may be taken to have lasted from the 33rd to the 14th centuries BCE. It is part of the Indus Valley Tradition, which also includes the pre-Harappan occupation of Mehrgarh, the earliest farming site of the Indus Valley. Two terms are employed for the periodisation of the Valley Phases and Eras. Other IVC colonies can be found in Afghanistan indus smaller isolated colonies can be found as far away as Turkmenistan and in Gujarat. Many Indus Valley sites have been discovered along the Ghaggar-Hakra beds. However, these politically inspired arguments are disputed by other archaeologists who state that the Ghaggar-Hakra desert area has been left untouched by settlements and agriculture since the end of the Indus period and hence shows more sites than those found in the alluvium of the Indus valley; second, that the number of Harappan sites along the Ghaggar-Hakra river beds has been exaggerated and that the Ghaggar-Hakra, when it existed, was a tributary of the Indus, so the new nomenclature is redundant. It is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley to the west, and predates the Kot Diji Phase BCE, Harappan 2named after a site in northern SindhPakistan, near Mohenjo Daro. The earliest examples of the Indus script date to the 3rd millennium BCE. Another town of this stage was found at Kalibangan in India on the Hakra River. By this time, villagers had domesticated numerous crops, including peassesame seedsdatesand cotton, as well as animals, including the water buffalo. Early Harappan communities turned to large urban centres by BCE, from where the mature Harappan phase started. The latest research shows that Indus Valley people migrated from villages to cities. Such urban centres include HarappaGaneriwalaMohenjo-Daro in modern-day Pakistan, and DholaviraKalibanganRakhigarhiRuparand Lothal in modern-day India. The quality of municipal town planning suggests the knowledge of urban planning and efficient municipal governments which placed a high priority on hygieneor, alternatively, accessibility to the means of religious ritual. Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water from wells. From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing, waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets. Houses opened only to inner courtyards and smaller lanes. The house-building in some valley in the region still resembles in some respects the house-building of the Harappans. The advanced architecture of the Harappans is shown by their impressive dockyards, granarieswarehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls. The massive walls of Indus cities most likely protected the Harappans from floods and may have dissuaded military conflicts. There is no conclusive evidence of palaces or templesor of kings, armies, or priests. Some structures are thought to have been granaries. Found at one city is an enormous well-built bath the " Great Bath "which may have been a public bath. Although the citadels were walled, it is far from clear that these structures were defensive. They may have been built to divert flood waters. Materials from distant regions were used in the cities for constructing seals, beads and other objects. Steatite seals have images of animals, people perhaps godsand other types of inscriptions, including the yet un-deciphered writing system of the Indus Valley Civilisation. Some of the seals were used to stamp clay on trade goods and most probably had other uses as well. All the houses had access to water and drainage facilities. This gives the impression of a society with relatively low wealth concentrationthough clear social levelling is seen in personal adornments. The population increased in Indus plains because of hunting and gathering. The cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had a flush toilet in almost every house, attached to a sophisticated sewage system. But, there are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented. For instance, the majority of the cities were constructed in a highly uniform and well-planned grid pattern, suggesting they were planned by a central authority; extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts as evident in pottery, seals, weights and bricks; presence of public facilities and monumental architecture; heterogeneity in the mortuary symbolism and in grave goods items included in burials. They were among the first to develop a system of uniform weights and measures. A comparison of available objects indicates large scale variation across the Indus territories. Their smallest division, which is marked on an ivory scale found in Lothal in Gujarat, was approximately mm, the smallest division ever recorded on a scale of the Bronze Age. Harappan engineers followed the decimal division of measurement for all practical purposes, including the measurement of mass as revealed by their hexahedron weights. The engineering skill of the Harappans was remarkable, especially in building docks. Later, in Aprilit was announced in the scientific journal Nature that the oldest and first early Neolithic evidence for the drilling of human teeth in vivo i. Eleven drilled molar crowns from nine adults were discovered in a Neolithic graveyard all Mehrgarh that dates from 7,5009,000 years ago. According to the authors, their discoveries point to a tradition of proto-dentistry in the early farming cultures of that region. These terracotta figurines included cows, bears, monkeys, and dogs. The animal depicted on a majority of seals at sites of the mature period has not been clearly identified. Part bull, part zebra, the a majestic horn, it has been a source of speculation. As yet, there is insufficient evidence to substantiate claims that the image had religious or cultic significance, but the prevalence of the image raises the question of whether or not the animals in images of the IVC are religious symbols. Modeling such as this was unknown in the ancient world up to the Hellenistic age of Greece, and I thought, therefore, that some mistake must surely have been made; that these figures had found their way into levels some years older than those to which they properly belonged Now, in these statuettes, it is just this anatomical truth which is so startling; that makes us wonder whether, in this all-important matter, Greek artistry could possibly have about anticipated by the sculptors of a far-off age on the banks of the Indus. Some of these crafts are still practised in the subcontinent today. Sir John Marshall identified a resemblance to the Hindu god, Shiva. The Harappans also made various toys and games, among them cubical dice with one to six holes on the faceswhich were found in sites like Mohenjo-Daro. The IVC may have been the first civilisation to use wheeled transport. Most of these boats were probably small, flat-bottomed craft, perhaps driven by sail, similar to those one can see on the Indus River today; however, there is secondary evidence of sea-going craft. Archaeologists have discovered a massive, dredged canal and what they regard as a docking facility at the coastal city of Lothal in western India Gujarat state. An extensive canal network, used for irrigation, has however also been discovered by H. During the Early Harappan period about BCEsimilarities in pottery, seals, figurines, ornaments, etc. Studies of tooth enamel from individuals buried at Harappa suggest that some residents had migrated to the city from beyond the Indus valley. Shallow harbours located at the estuaries of rivers opening into the sea allowed brisk maritime trade with Mesopotamian cities. Shaffer writes that the Mehrgarh site "demonstrates that food production was an indigenous South Asian phenomenon" and that the data support interpretation of "the prehistoric urbanisation and complex social organisation in South Asia as based on indigenous, but not isolated, cultural developments". It has often been suggested that the bearers of the IVC corresponded to proto-Dravidians linguistically, the break-up of proto-Dravidian corresponding to the break-up of the Late Harappan culture. According to Heggarty and Renfrew, Dravidian languages may have spread into the Indian subcontinent with the spread of farming. Others have claimed on occasion that the the were exclusively used for economic transactions, but this claim leaves unexplained the appearance of Indus symbols on many ritual objects, many of which were mass-produced in moulds. No parallels to these mass-produced inscriptions are known in any other early ancient civilisations. They conclude indus the method used by Rao et al. Each seal has a distinctive combination of symbols and there are too few examples of each sequence to provide a sufficient context. The symbols that accompany the images vary from seal to seal, making it impossible to derive a meaning for the symbols from the images. There have, nonetheless, been a number of interpretations offered for the meaning of the seals. These interpretations have all marked by ambiguity and subjectivity. The final, third, volume, republished photos taken in the s and s of hundreds of lost or stolen inscriptions, along with many discovered in the last few decades. Formerly, researchers had to supplement the materials in the Corpus by study of the tiny photos in the excavation reports of MarshallMacKay, Wheeleror reproductions in more recent scattered sources. The religion and belief system of the Indus valley people have received considerable attention, especially from the view of identifying precursors to deities and religious practices of Indian religions that later developed in the area. However, due to the sparsity of evidence, which is open to varying interpretations, and the fact that the Indus script remains undeciphered, the conclusions are valley speculative and largely based on a retrospective view from a much later Hindu perspective. Marshall identified the figure as an early form of the Hindu god Shiva or Rudrawho is associated with asceticism, yogaand linga; regarded as a lord of animals; and often depicted as having three eyes. The seal has hence come to be known as the Pashupati Sealafter Pashupati lord of all animalsan epithet of Shiva. Doris Srinivasan has argued that the figure does not have three faces, or yogic posture, and that in Vedic literature Rudra was not a protector of wild animals. Possehl concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognise the figure as a deity, its association with the water buffalo, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as a proto-Shiva would be going too far. One seal from Mohen-jodaro shows a half-human, half-buffalo monster attacking a tiger, which may be a reference to the Sumerian myth of such a monster created by goddess Aruru to fight Gilgamesh. Several sites have been proposed by Marshall and later scholars as possibly devoted to religious purpose, but at present only the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro is widely thought to have been so used, as a place for ritual purification. In Sir Mortimer Wheeler proposed that the invasion of an Indo-European tribe from Central Asia, the " Aryans ", caused the decline of the Indus Civilisation. As evidence, he cited a group of 37 skeletons found in various parts of Trading, and passages in the Vedas referring to battles and forts. Subsequent examinations of the skeletons by Kenneth Kennedy in showed that the marks on the skulls were caused by erosion, and not by violence. Previously, scholars believed that the decline of the Harappan civilisation led to an interruption of urban life in the Indian subcontinent. However, the Indus Valley Civilisation did not disappear suddenly, and many elements of the Indus Civilisation appear in later cultures. David Gordon White cites three other mainstream scholars who "have emphatically demonstrated" that Vedic religion derives partially from the Indus Valley Civilisations. These link "the so-called two major phases of urbanisation in South Asia". Alternatively, the disappearance of substantial portions of the Ghaggar Hakra river system may have played a crucial role. The actual reason for decline might be any combination of these factors. A paper indicated that the isotopes of sediments carried by the Ghaggar-Hakra system over the last 20 thousand years do not come from the glaciated Higher Himalaya but have a sub-Himalayan source. They speculated that the river system was rain-fed instead and thus contradicted the idea of a Harappan-time mighty "Sarasvati" river. Using U-Pb dating of zircon sand grains they found that sediments typical of the Beas, Sutlej and Yamuna rivers Himalayan tributaries of the Indus are actually present in former Ghaggar-Hakra channels. However, sediment contributions from these glacial-fed rivers stopped at least by 10,000 years ago, well before the development of the Indus civilisation. In the same period the Ghaggar-Hakraa former Indus tributary or a river flowing between the Indus and the Ganges watersheds and the most likely candidate for Sarasvati River, retracted its reach towards the foothills of the Himalaya. Flood-supported farming led to large agricultural surpluses, which in turn supported the development of cities. The IVC residents did not develop irrigation capabilities, relying mainly on the seasonal monsoons leading to summer floods. As the monsoons kept shifting south, the floods grew too erratic for sustainable agricultural activities. The residents then migrated towards the Ganges basin in the east, where they established smaller villages and isolated farms. The small surplus produced in these small communities did not allow development of trade, and the cities died out. In the formerly great city of Harappa, burials have been found that correspond to a regional culture called the Cemetery H culture. At the same time, the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture expanded from Rajasthan into the Gangetic Plain. The Cemetery H culture has the earliest evidence for cremation ; a practice dominant in Hinduism today. The mature Harappan phase of the IVC is contemporary to the Early and Middle Bronze Age in the Ancient Near Eastin particular the Old Elamite periodEarly Dynastic to Ur III MesopotamiaPrepalatial Minoan Crete and Old Kingdom to First Intermediate Period Egypt. Mortimer Wheeler interpreted the presence of many unburied corpses found in the top levels of Mohenjo-Daro as the victims of a warlike conquest, and famously stated that " Indra stands accused" of the destruction of the Valley. The association of the IVC with the city-dwelling Dasyus remains alluring because the assumed timeframe of the first Indo-Aryan migration into India corresponds neatly with the period of decline of the IVC seen in the archaeological record. The discovery of the advanced, urban IVC however changed the 19th-century view of early Indo-Aryan migration as an "invasion" of an advanced culture at the expense of a "primitive" aboriginal population to a gradual acculturation of nomadic "barbarians" on an advanced urban civilisation, comparable to the Germanic migrations after the Fall of Romeor the Kassite invasion of Babylonia. This move away from simplistic "invasionist" scenarios parallels similar developments in thinking about language transfer and population movement in general, such as in the case of the migration of the proto-Greek speakers into Greece, or the Indo-Europeanization of Western Europe. Michael Witzel suggests an underlying, prefixing language that is similar to Austroasiaticnotably Khasi ; he argues that the Rigveda shows signs of this hypothetical Harappan influence in the earliest historic level, and Dravidian only in later levels, suggesting that speakers of Austroasiatic were the original inhabitants of Punjab and that the Indo-Aryans encountered speakers of Dravidian only in later times. Behind us about a large circular mound, or eminence, and to the west was an irregular rocky height, about with the remains of buildings, in fragments of walls, with niches, after the eastern manner Tradition affirms the existence here of a city, so considerable that it extended to Chicha Watni, thirteen cosses distant, and that it was destroyed by a particular visitation of Providence, brought down by the lust and crimes of the sovereign. Dikshit, provided six artefacts, including "relatively advanced pottery," socalled Hakra ware, which were dated at a time bracket between and BCE. While the mutation spread across Europe, another explorer must have brought the mutation eastward to India likely traveling along the coast of the Persian Gulf where other pockets of the same mutation have been found. In: Possehl G, editor. New Delhi India : Oxford University Press and India Book House. Deshpande and Peter Edwin Hook: Aryan and Non-Aryan in IndiaCenter for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor ; David McAlpin, "Proto-Elamo-Dravidian: The Evidence and its Implications", Transactions of the American Philosophical Society vol pt. This wave has been postulated to have brought the Dravidian languages into India Renfrew Subsequently, the Indo-European Aryan language family was introduced into India about 4,000 ybp. It is hypothesized that the proto-Elamo-Dravidian language, most likely originated in the Elam province in southwestern Iran, spread eastwards with the movement of farmers to the Indus Valley and the Indian sub-continent. In: Harris DR, editor, The origins and spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasiapp. This migration originated in what was historically termed Elam in south-west Iran to the Indus valley, and may have been associated with the spread of Dravidian languages from south-west Iran Quintan-Murci et al. This migration originated in what was historically termed Elam in south-west Iran to the Indus valley, and may have been associated with the spread of Dravidian languages from south-west Iran. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA Quote: "Numerous speculations have advanced the idea that the Ghaggar-Hakra fluvial system, at times identified with the lost mythical river of Saraswati e. Potential sources for this river include the Yamuna River, the Sutlej River, or both rivers. However, the lack of large-scale incision on the interfluve demonstrates that large, glacier-fed rivers did not flow across the Ghaggar-Hakra region during the Holocene The present Ghaggar-Hakra valley and its tributary rivers are currently dry or have seasonal flows. Yet rivers were undoubtedly active in this region during the Urban Harappan Phase. We recovered sandy fluvial deposits approximately 5;400 y old at Fort Abbas in Pakistan SI Textand recent work on the upper Ghaggar-Hakra interfluve in India also documented Holocene channel sands that are approximately 4;300 y old. On the upper interfluve, fine-grained floodplain deposition continued until the end of the Late Harappan Phase, as recent as 2,900 y ago Fig. This widespread fluvial redistribution of sediment suggests that reliable monsoon rains were able to sustain perennial rivers earlier during the Holocene and explains why Harappan settlements flourished along the entire Ghaggar-Hakra system without access to a glacier-fed river. It would seem that the bountiful monsoon rainfall of the early to mid-Holocene had forged a condition of plenty for all, and that competitive energies were channeled into commerce rather than conflict. Scholars have long argued that these rains shaped the origins of the urban Harappan societies, which emerged from Neolithic villages around BCE. It now appears that this rainfall began to slowly taper off in the third millennium, at just the point that the Harappan cities began to develop. Thus it seems that this "first urbanisation" in South Asia was the initial response of the Indus Valley peoples to the beginning of Late Holocene aridification. These cities were maintained for to years and then gradually abandoned as the Harappan peoples resettled in scattered trading in the eastern range of their territories, into the Punjab and the Ganges Valley. Fuller, "Paleoecology and the Harappan Civilization of South Asia: A Reconsideration," Quaternary Science ReviewsCompare with the very different interpretations in Gregory L. Possehl About, Gregory LThe Indus Civilization: A Contemporary PerspectiveRowman Altamira, pp 245, ISBNand Michael Staubwasser et al. Naylor; Dahia Ibo Shabaka World History: Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. During the Urban period, the early town of Harappa expanded in size and population indus became a major center in the Upper Indus. Other cities emerging during the Urban period include Mohenjo-daro in the Lower Indus, Dholavira to the south on the western edge of peninsular India in Kutch, Ganweriwala in Cholistan, and a fifth city, Rakhigarhi, on the Ghaggar-Hakra. Rakhigarhi will be discussed briefly in view of the limited published material. India: Oxford University Press. New Delhi: Pearson Education. London: Asia Publishing House. In Possehl Indus L. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. Indian Archaeology, A Review Delhi: Archaeol. In Maurizio Taddei ed South Asian Archaeology Naples: Seminario di Studi Asiatici Series Minor 6. S "A new model of the Harappan town planning as revealed at Dholavira in Kutch: a surface study of its plan and architecture". In Chatterjee Bhaskar ed History and Archaeology. New Delhi: Ramanand Vidya Bhawan. R "Recent archaeological research in the Cholistan desert". Old Problems and New Perspectives in the Archaeology of South Asia. Wisconsin Archaeological Reports 2. Misra, Virendra Nath Indus Civilization, a special Number of the Eastern Anthropologist. New Delhi: Tulika Books. A "Some Early Harappan sites in Gomal and Bannu Valleys". Frontiers of Indus Civilisation. K "Kalibangan: A Harappan Metropolis Beyond the Indus Valley". J History of Urban Form: Before the Industrial Revolutions Third ed. New York, NY: Routledge. Prehistory and Harappan Civilization. S "Excavations at Banawali 77". New Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India. S "The seagoing vessels on Dilmun seals". An Introduction to Indus Writing. NY: Princeton University Press. November "A Peaceful Realm? Trauma and Social Differentiation at Harappa. Elaine; Cox, Brett; Gray, Kelsey; Mushrif-Tripathy, Veena December "Infection, Disease, and Biosocial Process at the End of the Indus Civilization. All University of Chicago Press. In Spodek, Howard ; Srinivasan, Doris M. Kamandalu: The Seven Sacred Rivers of Trading. Maugh II May "Migration of monsoons created, then killed Harappan civilization". Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B. New York: Viking Allchin, Raymond ed The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The All of Cities and States. New York: Cambridge University Press Aronovsky, Ilona; Gopinath, Sujata The Indus Valley. Chicago: Heinemann Basham, A. L The Wonder That Was India. K Indus Civilization Sites in India: New Discoveries. ISBN Coningham, Robin; Young, RuthThe Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c BCE200 CECambridge University Press Dani, Ahmad Hassan Short History of Pakistan Book University of Karachi Dani, Ahmad Hassan ; Mohen, J-P. P The Indus-Saraswati Civilization: Origins, Problems and Issues. In Adluri, Vishwa; Bagchee, Joydeep. When the Goddess was a Woman: Mahabharata Ethnographies Essays by Alf Hiltebeitel. ISBN Kathiroli; et al "Recent Marine Archaeological Finds in Khambhat, Gujarat". Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark Ancient cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation. ISBN Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark "The Indus Valley tradition of Pakistan and Western India". Journal of World Prehistory doi BF Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark ; Heuston, Kimberly The Ancient South Asian World. ISBN Kivisild; et al"Deep common ancestry of Indian and western-Eurasian mitochondrial DNA lineages" PDFCurr. B India New Light on the Indus Civilization. New Delhi: Aryan Books International. B The Earliest Civilisation of South Asia Rise, Maturity and Decline Lal, B. ISBN Mascarenhas, Desmond D. VolumeArticle ID16 pages The, Charles "Chapter 2: Haripah". Narrative of Various Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan and the Panjab; including a residence in those countries from to London: Richard Bentley. ISBN McIntosh, Jane "Religion and ideology". ISBN Mughal, Mohammad Rafique Ancient Cholistan, Archaeology and Architecture. ISBN Mukherjee, Namita; Nebel, Almut; Oppenheim, Ariella; Majumder, Partha P"High-resolution analysis of Y-chromosomal polymorphisms reveals signatures of population movements from central Asia and West Asia into India" PDFJournal of GeneticsSpringer India, 35, doi BFPMIDretrieved Lahiri, Nayanjot ed The Decline and Fall of the Indus Civilisation. The Early Aryans and the Indus CivilisationOxford University Press Pittman, Holly Art of the Bronze Age: southeastern Iran, western Central Asia, and the Indus Valley. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN Possehl, Gregory L November The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. ISBN Poznik"Punctuated bursts in human male demography inferred from 1,244 worldwide Y-chromosome sequences", Nature geneticsdoi ng Sengupta, S; Zhivotovsky, LA; King, R; Mehdi, SQ; Edmonds, CA; Chow, CE; Lin, AA; Mitra, M; et al "Polarity and Temporality of High-Resolution Y-Chromosome Distributions in India Identify Both Indigenous and Exogenous Expansions and Reveal Minor Genetic Influence of Central Asian Pastoralists". American Journal of Human Genetics doi PMC PMID Rao, Shikaripura Ranganatha Dawn and Devolution of the Indus Civilisation. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan. ISBN Shaffer, Jim G "Cultural tradition and Palaeoethnicity in South Asian Archaeology". In George Erdosy ed Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia. ISBN Shaffer, Jim G "Migration, Philology and South Asian Archaeology". In Bronkhorst and Deshpande eds Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia. Cambridge: Harvard University, Dept. ISBN CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter link Shaffer, Jim G "The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Helmand Traditions: Neolithic Through Bronze Age". Ehrich ed Chronologies in Old World Archaeology Second ed. Archives of Asian Art JSTOR Srinivasan, Doris Meth Many Heads, Arms and Eyes: Origin, Meaning and Form in Multiplicity in Indian Art. ISBN Sullivan, Herbert P "A Re-Examination of the Religion of the Indus Civilization". History of Religions doi JSTOR Thapar, Romila Early India: From the Origins to AD University of California Press. ISBN Underhill, Peter A. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy.
Top 10 Fascinating Facts About Ancient Indus Valley Civilization
Top 10 Fascinating Facts About Ancient Indus Valley Civilization
3 thoughts on “All about trading in the indus valley”
Gary Johnson, capable of climbing mountains and not running his business into bankruptcy, represents the choice for peace, privacy, and equality, in a new ad from AlternativePAC.
Gary Johnson, capable of climbing mountains and not running his business into bankruptcy, represents the choice for peace, privacy, and equality, in a new ad from AlternativePAC.
Rationality over ideology. Try it. You might find it pleasing.
Peter DeFazio (D-OR) would turn federal timberlands in western Oregon into trust organizations.